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Appropriate technology

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Pedal-powered water pump in Uganda

Appropriate technology is a movement and type of technology that focuses on solutions that are small-scale, affordable, labor-intensive, energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and locally controlled.[1] [2] It was first called intermediate technology by economist E. F. Schumacher in his book Small Is Beautiful. Both Schumacher and modern supporters of appropriate technology emphasize that technology should serve people directly.[3] [4]

Appropriate technology is used in many fields. Common examples include bike- and hand-powered water pumps, bicycle, the universal nut sheller, self-contained solar lamps and streetlights, and passive solar building design. Today, much of it is developed using open source principles, creating open-source appropriate technology (OSAT), with many designs freely available online.[5] [6] OSAT is seen as a model for fostering innovation for sustainable development.[7] [8] [9]

Appropriate technology is often discussed in relation to economic development and as an alternative to transferring expensive, high-tech solutions from industrialized nations to developing countries.[3] [10] [11] It is also used in developed countries, especially since the energy crisis of the 1970s, where the focus is often on environmental and sustainability issues.[12] The term can mean the simplest technology to achieve a purpose or technology that carefully considers social and environmental impacts, connected through robustness and sustainable living.

Predecessors

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Mahatma Gandhi is often called the "father" of the appropriate technology movement. He promoted small, local, mostly village-based technology to make villages self-reliant. Gandhi opposed technology that helped only a few people or caused unemployment.[3] In 1925, he founded the All-India Spinners Association and in 1935 the All-India Village Industries Association, both focusing on village-based technology.[13]

In China, similar ideas were applied during Mao Zedong’s rule and the Cultural Revolution, encouraging both large factories and small village industries.[3]

E. F. Schumacher

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E. F. Schumacher is credited as the founder of the appropriate technology movement. While working for the British National Coal Board, he noticed the industry ignored workers’ health. His work in developing countries, especially India and Burma, helped him shape the principles of appropriate technology.[3]

In 1962, Schumacher proposed "intermediate technology" to India’s Planning Commission, calling for technologies that used India’s labor surplus effectively.[14] Earlier, in 1955, he published "Economics in a Buddhist Country," critiquing Western economic methods in developing nations.[14] Gandhi’s ideas also influenced him.

At first, his ideas were rejected, but in 1965 Schumacher, George McRobie, Mansur Hoda[15] and Julia Porter formed the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG). After a popular article in The Observer, ITDG gained support. By 1967, ITDG published Tools for Progress, selling 7,000 copies, and created expert panels to develop practical technologies. In 1968, the term "intermediate technology" was replaced with "appropriate technology".[14] [3]

In 1973, Schumacher explained appropriate technology to a wider audience in Small Is Beautiful.

Growing trend

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Between 1966 and 1975, new appropriate technology organizations grew three times faster than before. Interest also grew in applying it to developed countries, especially for energy and environmental issues.[16] By 1977, the OECD listed 680 organizations; by 1980, over 1,000. International agencies like the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Health Organization also began supporting appropriate technology.[16]

The National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT) was founded in 1977 in the U.S., funded by Congress to help low-income communities develop practical solutions. Its website is no longer government-funded.[17]

In recent years, appropriate technology has declined. Organizations like the German GATE and Dutch TOOL no longer operate. Barriers include perceptions of being "poor person’s technology," technical limitations, lack of funding, weak institutional support, and challenges in rural deployment.[18]

Some, like Paul Polak, argue that the "design for the other 90 percent" movement has replaced appropriate technology, focusing on affordable solutions for the majority of the world’s population.[19] [20] Many core ideas of appropriate technology are now part of sustainable development.[21] In 1983, OECD defined appropriate technology as having low cost, simple organization, adaptability, low use of resources, and employment potential.[16] Today, OECD and UN sources redirect from "appropriate technology" to "environmentally sound technologies" or "sustainable development".[22] [23]

Potential resurgence

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Some organizations still exist. ITDG became Practical Action in 2005.[24] Skat continues some activities through the Rural Water Supply Network. CEAS in West Africa and Madagascar provides vocational training in solar and food technologies. OSAT initiatives, enabled by the Internet, include Akvo Foundation, Appropedia, The Appropriate Technology Collaborative, Centre for Alternative Technology, Engineers Without Borders, Low-tech Magazine, Open Source Ecology, Practical Action, and Village Earth. Recently, ASME, Engineers Without Borders (USA), and IEEE collaborated to form Engineering for Change to develop affordable, locally appropriate, and sustainable solutions.

Terminology

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"Appropriate technology" is an umbrella term for many related concepts. "Intermediate technology" refers to technology more advanced than traditional methods but cheaper than industrialized solutions.[25] Other terms include capital-saving, mid-tech, labor-intensive, alternate, self-help, village-level, community, progressive, indigenous, people’s, light-engineering, adaptive, light-capital, and soft technology.[16][25][26]

Some terms highlight employment (labor-intensive, capital-saving) while others highlight human development (self-help, people’s technology).[25]

Appropriate technology can be divided into hard and soft forms. Hard technology is physical tools, structures, and machinery that can be built and maintained locally.[27] Soft technology deals with social structures, participation, and methods for communities to solve problems.[28] Social technology is similar, focusing on solutions that bring social change.[29] Mid-tech is a modern approach that combines low-tech autonomy with high-tech efficiency.[30]

Practitioners

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Notable practitioners include B.V. Doshi, Buckminster Fuller, William Moyer, Amory Lovins, Sanoussi Diakité, Albert Bates, Victor Papanek, Giorgio Ceragioli, Frithjof Bergmann, Arne Næss, Mansur Hoda, and Laurie Baker.

Development

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Schumacher developed intermediate technology as a critique of development that focused on increasing GDP rather than reducing poverty.[26] After World War II, developed nations tried to industrialize developing countries through capital and technology transfer.[26][31] By the late 1960s, this approach increased poverty and inequality, benefiting urban elites and causing rural migration.[32][25]

Appropriate technology aims to reduce extreme poverty, starvation, unemployment, and urban migration. Schumacher emphasized rural employment over urban productivity.[33]

In developed countries

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In developed nations, appropriate technology focuses on reducing environmental and social impacts. Schumacher argued that technology should promote health, beauty, and permanence.[34] [35] Often called "appropriate and sustainable technology" (AST), it emphasizes durability and renewable resources.

Applications

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Applications include renewable energy, water supply, agriculture, building, and tools designed for local use.

Determining a sustainable approach

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Low cost, low fossil fuel use, and local resources make appropriate technology sustainable.[2] Waste materials can be reused for construction, organic fertilizer, and other purposes using methods like cradle to cradle design.

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Community-based economics, Cosmopolitan localism, Campus Center for Appropriate Technology (CCAT), National Center for Appropriate Technology, Alternative propulsion, Alternative technology, DIY culture, Eco-village, Frugal innovation, Jugaad, Low technology, Maker Movement, Myth of Progress, Open Source Appropriate Technology, Permaculture, Practical Action, Principles of Intelligent Urbanism, Social entrepreneurship, Sustainable development, Tools for Conviviality, Green syndicalism, Lifehacking, Small Is Beautiful, The Appropriate Technology Collaborative
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Amish way of life, Bush Pump, Cradle to Cradle Design, Critique of technology, Deindustrialization, List of environment topics, Family planning, No innovation without representation, Old Order Mennonite, Productivity improving technologies (historical), Schumacher Center for New Economics, Russian Mennonite, Social innovation, Source reduction, Synthetic biology, Technology and society, Zero emission, Whole Earth Catalog

References

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  1. ↑ Cite error: The named reference BrownU was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  2. 1 2 Cite error: The named reference SianiparEJSD was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cite error: The named reference Akubue was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  4. ↑ Cite error: The named reference E4C was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
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  10. ↑ Cite error: The named reference SianiparJSSM was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  11. ↑ Cite error: The named reference Todaro was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  12. ↑ Cite error: The named reference NCAT was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  13. ↑ Cite error: The named reference mkgandhi was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  14. 1 2 3 Cite error: The named reference mcrobie was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  15. ↑ Cite error: The named reference Guardian was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  16. 1 2 3 4 Cite error: The named reference OECD was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  17. ↑ Cite error: The named reference ncathistory was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  18. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
  19. ↑ Cite error: The named reference polak was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  20. ↑ Cite error: The named reference cooperhewittabout was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  21. ↑ Cite error: The named reference worldbank1 was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  22. ↑ Cite error: The named reference OECD2 was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  23. ↑ Cite error: The named reference UNdefinition was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  24. ↑ Cite error: The named reference practicalactionname was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  25. 1 2 3 4 Cite error: The named reference evans was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  26. 1 2 3 Cite error: The named reference jackson was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  27. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
  28. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
  29. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
  30. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
  31. ↑ Cite error: The named reference baron was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  32. ↑ Cite error: The named reference jequier was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  33. ↑ Cite error: The named reference willoughby was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  34. ↑ Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
  35. ↑ Cite error: The named reference nytimes08 was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).

Further reading

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  • Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 13, "The Design of Environmentally Sustainable and Appropriate Technologies", New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, ISBN 0-86571-704-4, 464 pp.
  • Basic Needs Approach, Appropriate Technology, and Institutionalism by Dr. Mohammad Omar Farooq.
  • Unintended Consequences of Green Technologies.
  • Edward Tenner, Why Things Bite Back, Vantage Books, 1997.
  • Zehner, Ozzie. Green Illusions, University of Nebraska Press, 2012.

Other websites

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